Bibliography in English

Introduction

This bibliography has been compiled by Patrick Wiegand on behalf of the Cartography and Children Commission of the International Cartographic Association.

It consists of references to research and scholarship on children’s understanding and use of maps as well as references to teaching with maps published since 1970. The core of the listing consists of books, chapters in books and papers in refereed journals although some other publications and significant theses are also included where these are likely to be readily available for study. The boundaries of the literature are, of course, blurred. I have attempted to include references on wayfinding, teaching strategies, spatial cognition (where maps form a key component), school map and atlas surveys but not works on general geography teaching. Some cartographic publications are included which, although they have little explicit reference to children, are considered especially pertinent to understanding children’s interactions with maps or which seem to offer potentially fruitful areas of research. Textbooks, map workbooks and school atlases are not generally included at present but I am happy to include them in due course, possibly in a separate section. The listing is not at present categorised, although this may be possible at a later date if time and resources permit.

The listing was first posted in October, 1999 and initially consisted of references I happened to have on file. The aim was to create a starting point to which other references could be added. I apologise to those colleagues whose work is not (or not fully) represented here and for the inadvertent omission of key publications. I know of a number of active researchers and writers whose (substantial and important) work is not included in this listing, simply because I do not yet have it in a convenient digital form. I hope they will send me details as soon as possible. A few references are also incomplete. All colleagues interested in this field are invited to send me missing and new references as well as a note of any errors and incomplete citations and I will add them (subject to some light editorial discretion) as soon as practicable. Please use the same citation format as that in the listing. I would also be delighted to receive copies of new papers on children in maps either electronically or at :

The School of Education, University of Leeds, LS2 9JT, United Kingdom.

The bibliography only includes references in English but colleagues who have similar web-based bibliographies in other languages are invited to send me details so that I can create links from this site.

Patrick Wiegand

Link to Geography Education home page at the University of Leeds

 

 

Bibliography

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Anderson, J. (1985) Teaching map skills: an inductive approach, Journal of Geography, Part 1: 84(1), pp. 25-32; Part 2: 84(2), pp. 72-78; Part 3: 84(3), pp. 117-122; Part 4: 84(4), pp. 169-176.

Angier, N. (??) Teaching contour reading to lower secondary aged children using relief models, The Cartographic Journal, pp. 48-50.

Arnold,P., Sarge,A. and Worrall,L. (1995) Children’s knowledge of the Earth’s shape and its gravitational field, International Journal of Science Education, 17(5), pp. 635-641.

Atkins, C. (1981) Introducing basic map and globe concepts to young children, Journal of Geography, November, pp.228-233.

Bailey, P. (1979) Teaching and learning from landscape and map, Cartographic Journal, 16(1), pp. 21-23.

Bailey, P. and Fox.P. (1996) Teaching and learning with maps, in Bailey, P. and Fox, P. (Eds.) (1996) Geography Teachers’ Handbook, Sheffield: The Geographical Association.

Balchin, W.G. (1985) Graphicacy comes of age, Teaching Geography, 11 (1), pp.8-9.

Balchin, W. (1996) Graphicacy and the primary geographer, Primary Geographer, 24, pp. 4-6.

Barrell, G.V. and Cooper, P.J. (1986) Cognitive processes in orienteering: the interpretation of contours and responses to the map as a whole, Scientific Journal of Orienteering, 2, pp. 25-46.

Bartlett, L and Cox, B. (1982) Learning to teach geography: practical workshops in geographical education. (Chapter 6). New York: John Wiley.

Bartz, B. S. (1970) Maps in the classroom, Journal of Geography 69 (1), pp18-24.

Bausmith, J.M. and Leinhardt, G. (1998) Middle school students’ map construction: understanding complex spatial displays, Journal of Geography, 97, pp. 93-107.

Bentley, J., Charlton, W.A.. Goodenough, R.A., Price, R.R. and Rawcliffe, J.M. (1975) The Use of Maps in School, Oxford: Blackwell.

Billett, S. and Matusiak, C. (1988) Nursery children as map makers, Education 3-13, 16(1), pp. 41-45.

Blades, M. and Spencer, C.P. (1985) Using maps in pre-school education, Child Education, 62, pp.26-27.

Blades, M. and Spencer, C.P. (1986) On the starting grid: the use of grid references by under-fives, Child Education, 63, pp.27-28.

Blades, M. and Spencer, C. (1986) The implications of psychological theory and methodology for cognitive cartography, Cartographica, 23(4), pp 1-13.

Blades, M. and Spencer, C.P. (1986) Map use in the environment, and educating children to use maps, Environmental Education and Information, 5(3), pp.187-204.

Blades, M. and Spencer, C.P. (1987) Map use by three and four year old children exploring mazes, British Journal of Developmental Psychology, 5(1), pp.19-24.

Blades, M. and Spencer, C.P. (1987) Young children’s recognition of environmental features from aerial photographs and maps, Environmental Education and Information, 6(3), pp.189-198.

Blades, M. and Spencer, C.P. (1987) Young children’s strategies when using maps with landmarks, Journal of Environmental Psychology, 7(3), pp.201-218.

Blades, M. and Spencer, C. (1987) Map use by young children, Geography, 71(1), pp. 47-52.

Blades, M. and Spencer, C.P. (1987) How do people use maps to navigate through the world?, Cartographica, 24(3), pp.64-75.

Blades, M. and Spencer, C.P. (1989) Young children’s wayfinding: the pedestrian use of landmarks in urban environments and on maps, Man-Environment Systems, 17, pp.105-112.

Blades, M. and Spencer, C.P. (1989) Children’s wayfinding and map using abilities, Scientific Journal of Orienteering, 5, pp. 48-60.

Blades, M. and Spencer, C.P. (1989) Young children’s ability to use co-ordinate references, Journal of Genetic Psychology, 150, pp.5-18.

Blades, M. and Spencer, C.P. (1990) The development of 3-6 year old’s map using ability: the relative importance of landmarks and map alignment, Journal of Genetic Psychology, 151, pp.181-194.

Blades, M. and Spencer, C.P. (1994) The development of children’s ability to use spatial representations, Advances in Child Development and Behavior, 25, pp.157-197.

Blaut, J.M. (1991) Natural mapping, Transactions of the Institute of British Geographers, 16(1), pp. 55-74.

Blaut, J.M. and Stea, D. (1971) Studies of geographic learning, Annals of the Association of American Geographers, 61, pp. 387-393.

Blaut, J.M. and Stea, D. (1974), Mapping at the age of three, Journal of Geography, 73(7), pp. 5-9.

Blaut, J.M., Downs, R.M. and Liben, L.S. (1997) Forum: the mapping abilities of young children, Annals of the Association of American Geographers, 87(1), pp. 152-180.

Blaut, J. M., McCleary, G. S. and Blaut, A. S.(1970) , Environmental mapping in young children, Environment and Behaviour, 2, pp. 335-49.

Bloomfield, P. (1992) The map: top juniors, Education 3-13, 20(2), pp. 24-29.

Bluestein, N. and Acredolo, L.P. (1979) Developmental changes in map reading skills, Child Development, 50, pp 691-7.

Board, C. (1984) Higher order map-using tasks: geographical lessons in danger of being forgotten, Cartographica , 21(1), pp 85-97.

Boardman, D. (1983) Graphicacy and Geography Teaching, London: Croom Helm.

Boardman, D. (1983) On the Map: an Illustrated Exploration into the World of Maps, London: British Broadcasting Corporation.

Boardman, D. (1985) Cartographic communication with topographic maps’, in Boardman, D. (Ed.) New Directions in Geographical Education, London: Falmer Press, pp. 135-152.

Boardman, D. (1985) Spatial concept development and primary school map work, in Boardman, D. (Ed.) New Directions in Geographical Education, London: Falmer Press, pp. 119-134.

Boardman, D. (1986) Relief interpretation, in Boardman, D. (Ed.) Handbook for Geography Teachers, Sheffield: Geographical Association, pp.130-138.

Boardman, D. (1986) Map reading skills, in Boardman, D.(Ed.) Handbook for Geography Teachers, Sheffield: Geographical Association, pp. 123-129.

Boardman, D. (1989) The development of graphicacy: children’s understanding of maps, Geography 74 (4), pp.321-331.

Boardman, D. (1990) Graphicacy revisited: mapping abilities and gender differences, Educational Review, 42(1), pp. 57-64.

Boardman, D. (1991) Developing map skills in the National Curriculum, Teaching Geography, 16(4), pp.155-158.

Boardman, D. (1996) Learning with Ordnance Survey maps, in Bailey, P. and Fox, P. (eds)(1996) Geography Teachers’ Handbook, Sheffield: Geographical Association, pp. 117-123.

Boardman, D. and Towner, E. (1979) Reading Ordnance Survey Maps: Some Problems of Graphicacy. Birmingham: Teaching Research Unit, Department of Curriculum Studies, Faculty of Education, University of Birmingham.

Bowles, R. (1993) Maps and map-making, in Bowles, R. (1993) Practical Guides: Geography, Leamington Spa: Scholastic Publications, pp. 53-76.

Buckler, W.R. (1988) Computer generated 3D maps: models for learning contour map reading, Journal of Geography, 87(2), pp. 49-58.

Burton, M. St. J.W. (1992) Teaching drawing skills: straight-jackets, squiggles and strokes, Teaching Geography, 17(3), pp. 125-127.

Castner, H.W. (1981) "Might There Be a Suzuki Method in Cartographic Education?" Cartographica. 18(1), pp. 59-67.

Castner, H.W. et al. (1981) Thinking About Ontario: A Hosford Study Atlas. Toronto and Edmonton: Hosford Publishing

Castner, H.W. and Mansfield, T. Dickson. (1982) A Key to Thinking About Ontario. Edmonton: Hosford Publishing.

Castner, H.W. (1983). "Research in Cartographic Communication: Any Implications for Introducing Maps and Mapping to Young Children?" The Operational Geographer. 2: 13-16.

Castner, H.W. (1987). "Education Through Mapping: A New Role for the School Atlas? Cartographica. XXIX, Spring: pp. 82-100.

Castner, H.W. (1990). Seeking New Horizons: A Perceptual Approach to Geographic Education. Montreal and Kingston: McGill-Queen’s University Press.

Castner, H.W. (1991). "Three Perspectives on Cartographic Education," Proceedings, 15th Conference, International Cartographic Association, Bournemouth, England. I. 28-35.

Castner, H.W. (1991). "Cartographic Languages and Cartographic Education," CISM Journal. XLV, Spring, 81-88.

Castner, H.W. (1992). "Geography’s Potential Contribution to General Education," in International Perspectives on Geographic Education. ed. A. David Hill. Chap. 15, 169-177. Skokie, IL: Rand McNally.

Castner, H.W. (1993). "Relating Cognitive Development to Cartographic Education with a Model of Orientation Space," Cartographic Perspectives. #16, Fall, 3-8.

Castner, H.W. (1995). Discerning New Horizons: A Perceptual Approach to Geographic Education. Indiana, PA: National Council for Geographic Education.

Castner, H.W. and Anderson, J.M. (Eds.) (1995). "Orienting Ourselves in Space: Implications for the School Curriculum?" Cartographica. XXXII, #2, 71pp.

Castner, H.W. (1996) Maps, concepts and themes in geographic education, in van der Zijpp, T., van der Schee, J. and Trimp, H. (Eds.) Innovation in Geographical Education: Proceedings of the 28th International Geographical Conngress Commission on Geographical Education, Amsterdam: IGUCGE/Centrum voor Educatieve Geografie Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, pp. 54-58.

Castner, H.W. (1997). "Twentieth-Century Children’s Atlases: Social Force or Educational Farce?" in Images of the World: The Atlas Through History. ed. John A. Wolter and Ronald E. Grim. Chapter. 14, 401-417.

Castner, H.W. (1997). "Modifying Our View of Geography in Light of Research in Spatial Development," in The First Assessment: Research in Geographic Education. ed. Richard G. Boehm and James F. Petersen. San Marcos, TX: Gilbert Grosvenor Center for Geographic Education, 54-67.

Castner, H.W. (2000). "A Functional Taxonomy for Mapping in Geographic Education," Research in Geographic Education. I (1):

Catling, S. (1978) Cognitive mapping exercises as primary geographical experience, Teaching Geography, 3(3), pp. 120-123.

Catling, S. (1978) The child’s spatial conception and geographic education, Journal of Geography, 77(1), pp.24-28.

 

Catling, S. (1979) Maps and cognitive maps: the young child’s perception, Geography, 64(4), pp.288-296.

Catling, S. (1980) Map use and objectives for map learning, Teaching Geography, 6(1), pp.15-17.

Catling, S. (1981) Mapwork in Primary and Middle Schools: Bibliographic Notes No.9, Sheffield: Geographical Association.

Catling, S. (1984) Resources for Mapwork in Primary and Middle Schools, Bibliographic Notes, No.27, Sheffield: Geographical Association.

Catling, S. (1985) Mapwork, in Corney, G. and Rawling, E. (Eds.), Teaching Slow Learners through Geography, Sheffield: Geographical Association, pp. 54-66.

Catling, S. (1988) Building less able children's map skills, in Dilkes, J.L. and Nicholls, A.

(eds)(1988) Low Attainers and the Teaching of Geography, Sheffield/Stafford: Geographical Association/National Association for Remedial Education, pp.25-28.

Catling, S. (1988) Using maps and aerial photographs, in Mills, D. (Ed.) Geographical Work in Primary and Middle Schools, Sheffield: Geographical Association, pp. 168-188.

Catling, S. (1990) Early mapwork: mapwork with five to eight year olds, in De Villiers, M. (Ed.) Primary Geography Matters, Sheffield: Geographical Association, pp.52-58.

Catling, S. (1990) Resourcing mapwork, Primary Geographer, 5, 14.

Catling, S. (1995) Mapping the environment with children, in De Villiers, M. (Ed.) Developments in Primary Geography: Theory and Practice, Sheffield: Geographical Association, pp. 11-17.

Catling, S. (1995) Going for the globe: introducing the world to 4-7 year olds, Primary Geographer, 23, pp. 4-6.

Catling, S. (1996) Beginning to map the world, Primary Geographer, 24, pp. 13-15.

Catling, S. (1996) Technical interest in curriculum development: a programme of map skills, in Williams,M. (Ed.) Understanding Geographical and Environmental Education: The Role of Research London: Cassell, pp. 93-111.

Cornell, E.H. and Hay, D.H. (1984) Children’s acquisition of a route via different media, Environment and Behaviour, 16, pp. 627-41.

Cross, J.A. (1987) Factors associated with students' place location knowledge, Journal of Geography, 86(2), pp. 59-63.

Dale, P.F. (1971) Children’s reactions to maps and aerial photographs, Area, 3(3 ), pp.170-177.

Dalke, D.E. (1998) Charting the development of representational skills: When do children know that maps can lead and mislead? Cognitive Development, 13(1), pp.53-72.

David, D.W. (1990) Big maps - little people, Journal of Geography, 89(2), pp. 58-62.

Davies, L.S. (1981) Problems in the identification of some topographic map symbols by uninitiated children: a preliminary investigation from Zimbabwe. In, P. Wilson, R. Gerber and J. Fien (Eds.) Research in Geographical Education. Brisbane: Australian Geographical Education Research Association.

Diana, E.M. and Webb, J.M. (1997) Using geographic maps in classrooms: The conjoint influence of individual differences and dual coding on learning facts, Learning and Individual Differences, 9(3), pp.195- 214.

Devereux,P. (1982), Environmental Knowledge and Map Learning in Boys aged 11 to 16, Unpublished M.A. dissertation, University of London Institute of Education.

Downs, R. M. and Liben, L.S. (1988), Through a map darkly: understanding maps as representations, Genetic Epistemologist,16,pp 11-18.

Downs, R.M., Liben, L.S. and Daggs, D.G. (1988) On education and geographers: the role of cognitive development theory in geographic education, Annals of the Association of American Geographers, 78, 680-700.

Evans, L. (1991) Finding your way, Special Children, January (Special supplement), pp.7-9.

Fitzsimons, D. (1989) Creating effective type for the classroom, Journal of Geography, 88(2), pp.42-45.

Foley, M. and Janikoun, J. (1996) Mapwork, in Foley, M. and Janikoun, J. (1996) The Really Practical Guide to Primary Geography, London: Stanley Thornes, pp. 75-99.

Freeland, K. and Wasson, S. (1990) Helping young children understand map symbols, Social Studies Texan, 16(1), pp.45-47.

Freundschuh, S. (1990) Can young children use maps to navigate?, Cartographica, 27(1),pp 54-66

Fung, Y. (1992) Effectiveness of gaming method in teaching grid references and conventional signs: an experimental study. In H. Schrettenbrunner and J. van Westrhenen (Eds.) Empirical Research and Geography Teaching, Utrecht/Amsterdam: Koninklijk Nederlands Aardrijkskundig Genootschap /Centrum fur Educatieve Geografie Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, pp.145-156.

Gerber, R. (1981) Children’s development of competence and performance in cartographic language. In, P.Wilson, R.Gerber and J.Fien (Eds.) Research in Geographical Education. Brisbane: Australian Geographical Education Research Association..

Gerber, R. (1981) Competence and performance in cartographic language, Cartographic Journal, 18(2), pp. 104-111.

Gerber, R. (1981) Young children’s understanding of the elements of maps, Teaching Geography, 6(3), pp.128-133.

Gerber, R. (1982) An international study of children's perception and understanding of type used on atlas maps, Cartographic Journal, 19(2), pp. 115-121.

Gerber, R. (1984) The development of competence and performance in cartographic language by children at the concrete level of map reasoning, Cartographica, 21(1), pp.99-119.

Gerber, R. (1984) Factors affecting the competence and performance in cartographic language for children at the concrete level of map reasoning, Cartography, 13(3), pp.205-213.

Gerber, R.(1985) Competence and performance in cartographic language, in Boardman, D. (Ed.) New Directions in Geographical Education, London: Falmer Press, pp. 153-170.

Gerber, R. (1987) A form-function analysis of school atlases, Cartographica (Monograph 36), 24(1), pp. 144-159.

Gerber, R. (1992) Is mapping in schools reflecting developments in cartography and geographical information?, in Naish, M. (Ed.) Geography and Education: National and International Perspectives, London: University of London Institute of Education, pp. 194-211.

Gerber, R. (1992) How do students in higher education perceive maps? In H. Schrettenbrunner and J. van Westrhenen (Eds.) Empirical Research and Geography Teaching, Utrecht/Amsterdam: Koninklijk Nederlands Aardrijkskundig Genootschap /Centrum fur Educatieve Geografie Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, pp.115-133.

Gerber, R. (1993) Map design for children, The Cartographic Journal, 30, pp. 154-158.

Gerber, R., Boulton-Lewis, G. and Bruce, C. (1995) Children's understanding

of graphic representations of quantitative data, Learning and Instruction,5, pp. 77-100.

Gerber,R and Kwan,T. (in press) Asian migrant adolescents' ability to find their way around suburban Australian streets using a map, Asian Geographer.

Gerber, R., Lidstone, J. and Nason, R. (1992) Modelling expertise in map reading: beginnings, International Research in Geographical and Environmental Education, 1(1), pp.31-43.

Gerber, R. and Wilson, P. (1979) Spatial reference systems and mapping with eleven-year-olds, Geographical Education, 3(3), pp.387-397.

Gerber, R. and Wilson, P. (1984) Maps in the geography classroom, in Fien, J. Gerber, R. and Wilson, P. (Eds.) The Geography Teacher's Guide to the Classroom, Melbourne: Macmillan, pp. 185-196.

Gersmehl, P. J. and Andrews, S. K. (1986) Teaching the language of maps, Journal of Geography, 85(6), pp. 267-270.

Ghuman, P.A.S. and Davis, R. (1981) An assessment of adolescent comprehension of some geographical concepts using Peel’s theoretical framework, Educational Review, 33(3), pp. 231-240.

Gilmartin, P. and Patton, J. C. (1984) Comparing the sexes on spatial abilities: map-use skills, Annals of the Association of American Geographers, 74(4), pp. 605-619.

Goldberg, J. and Kirman, J.M. (1990), Sex-related differences in learning to interpret Landsat images and in road map reading in young adolescents, Journal of Geography, 89(1), pp. 15-25.

Gould, P. (1985) Children as geographers (Chapter 21), The Geographer at Work, London: Routledge and Kegan Paul. Pp. 253-264.

Gregg, M. and Leinhardt, G. (1994) Mapping out geography: an example of epistemology and education, Review of Educational Research, 64, 311-361.

Griffin, T.L.C. (1983) Problem solving on maps - the importance of user strategies, Cartographic Journal, 20(2), pp. 101-109.

Harnapp, V. and King, D. (1991) A new look at making raised-relief maps in the classroom, Journal of Geography, 90(5), pp. 241-244.

Harris, M. (1972) Starting from Maps, London: Rupert Hart-Davis.

Harrison, P. and Harrison, S. (1988) Discover Maps with Ordnance Survey; Master Maps with Ordnance Survey. London/Southampton: Holmes McDougall/Ordnance Survey.

Hart, R. (1981) Children's spatial representation of the landscape: lessons and questions from a field study. In L. Liben, A.H. Patterson and N. Newcombe (Eds.) Spatial Representation and Behaviour Acroiss the Lifespan (pp. 195-233). New York: Academic Press.

Harwood, D. (1984) Introducing map-work to ESN(M) children; stage one: an approach through the use of aerial photographs, Remedial Education, 19(2), 65-72.

Harwood, D. (1984) Introducing map-work to ESN(M) children; stage two: transferring from aerial photographs to large scale maps, Remedial Education, 19(3), pp. 113-118.

Harwood, D. (1988) Introducing map-work to ESN(M) children, in Dilkes, J.L. amd Nicholls, A. (eds)(1988) Low Attainers and the Teaching of Geography, Sheffield/Stafford: Geographical Association/National Association for Remedial Education, pp. 29-39.

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Hawkins, M.L.(1977) Map and globe skills in elementary school textbooks, Journal of Geography, 76(7), pp 261-265.

Hayes, D.A. (1993) Freehand maps are for teachers and students alike, Journal of Geography, 92(1), pp. 13-15.

Heamon, A.J. (1973) The maturation of spatial ability in geography, Educational Research,16(1), pp. 63-66.

Hennings, G (1981) Understanding time-space relationships through map construction in the elementary grades, Journal of Geography, 81(3), pp. 129-55.

Hult, J. (1984) Interest and intermediate mechanisms in learning via environment, maps and atlases and the cognition of geographical concepts (review), in Haubrich, H. (Ed.) Perception of People and Places through Media. Vol. 2. Freiburg: Symposium of the Commission of Geographical Education.

Jahoda, G. (1963) The development of children’s ideas about country and nationality, British Journal of Educational Psychology, 33, pp. 47-60.

Jenks, G.F., Steinke, T., Buchert, B and Armstrong, L. (1971) Illustrating the concepts of the contour symbol, interval and spacing via 3D maps, The Journal of Geography, May, pp. 280-288.

Kealy, W.A. (1995) Contextual influences of maps and diagrams on learning, Contemporary Educational Psychology, 20, pp. 340-358.

Keates, J.S. (1982) Understanding Maps, London: Longmans.

Kinnear, P. R. and Wood, M. (1987) Memory for topographic contour maps, British Journal of Psychology, 78 (3), pp. 395-402.

Kirman, J.M. and Goldberg, J. (1992) Grade Six Children’s perception of a map symbol, Journal of Geography, 91 (1), pp. 38-40.

Kulhavy, R.W., Schwartz, N.H. and Shaha, S.H. (1982) Interpretative framework and memory for map features, The American Cartographer, 9(2), pp. 141-147.

Kulhavy, R.W., Pridemore, D.R. and Stock, W.A. (1992) Cartographic experience and thinking aloud about thematic maps, Cartographica, 29(1), pp. 1-9.

Kwan, T. (1994) Teachers’ perceptual understanding of mapwork and their style of mapwork teaching at Forms 1-3 in Hong Kong, Asian Geographer, 36, 94-103.

Kwan, T. (1996) Understanding children’s intuitive experience and their familiar environment in the teaching of maps. In R.Gerber and J. Lidstone (Eds.) Developments and Directions in Geographical Education. Channel View publications, pp. 197-224.

Kwan, T. (1998) Oh, I can use a map to find my way!, Geographical Education, 11, pp. 29-36.

Kwan, T. (1999) Pre-teenage children’s vernacular perception and experience of maps in Hong Kong, International Research in Geographical and Environmental Education, 8(1) pp. 5-25.

Lacey,P.J. (1978) Maps and Education with Particular Reference to Topographical Maps in Geographical Education, Unpublished M.Sc.(Ed) dissertation, University of Southampton.

Lanegran, D. and Peterson, P.W. (1987) Using the Seydlitz Weltatlas in the American geography classroom, Journal of Geography, March-April, pp.64-68.

Lawes,B. (1995) Orienteering for beginners !, Teaching Geography, 20(3), pp. 122-124.

Lee,J. and Gerber,R. (1999) Hong Kong students' perceptions of graphs,

charts and maps, Scandinanian Journal of Educational Research, 43(1), pp.19-39.

Leinhardt, G., Stainton, C. and Bausmith, J.M. (1998) Constructing maps collaboratively, Journal of Geography, 97, pp. 19-30.

Liben, L. and Downs, R. (1989) Understanding maps as symbols: the development of map concepts in children, in Reese, H. (Ed.)(1989) Advances in Child Development, New York: Academic Press, pp. 145-201.

Liben, L. and Downs, R. (1991) Developing map concepts in children and psychologists: going beyond maps as RE-Presentations, Paper presented at the Biennial Meeting of the Society for Research in Child Development, Seattle, WA, April 18-20. ERIC document Ed 333 985.

Liben, L. and Downs, R. (1991) The role of graphic representations in understanding the world, in R.M. Downs, L.S.Liben and D.S.Palermo (Eds.) Visions of Aesthetics, the Environment and Development: the Legacy of Joachim F. Wohlwill, Hillsdale, N.J.: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.

Liben, L. and Downs, R. (1994) Fostering geographic literacy from early childhood: the contributions of interdisciplinary research, Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology, 15, pp. 549-569.

Lloyd, R. (1988) Searching for map symbols: the cognitive process, The American Cartographer, 15(4), pp. 363-377.

Lloyd, R. (1989) Cognitive maps: encoding and decoding information, Annals of the Association of American Geographers, 79(1), pp. 101-124.

Lloyd, R. and Steinke, T.R. (1985) Comparison of quantitative point symbols/The cognitive process, Cartographica, 22(1), pp.59-77.

MacCabe, C. L. (1988), Student sketch maps as a surrogate for geographic knowledge, in Gerber, R. and Lidstone, J. (eds)(1988) Skills in Geographical Education Symposium ‘88, Vol.2, Brisbane: IGUCGE/Brisbane College of Advanced Education, pp. 627-664.

MacEachren, A.M. (1982) The role of complexity and symbolisation method in thematic map effectiveness, Annals of the Association of American Geographers, 72, pp. 495-513.

MacEachren, A. M. (1986), Map use and map making education: attention to sources of geographic education, Cartographic Journal, 23 (2), pp. 115-122.

MacEachren, A. M. (1991) The role of maps in spatial knowledge acquisition, Cartographic Journal, 28(2), pp. 152-162.

MacEachren, A. M. (1992) Application of environmental learning theory to spatial knowledge acquisition from maps, Annals of the Association of American Cartographers, 82(2), pp. 245-274.

MacEachren, A.M. (1995) How Maps Work, New York: Guilford Press.

Macey, S.M. (1998) Managing a computer teaching laboratory, Journal of Geography, 97, 13-18.

McGee, C. (1982) Children’s perception of symbols on maps and aerial photographs, Geographical Education, 4(2), pp.51-59.

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